Jump to content

Crusade

Links ke badlo
Wikipedia se

Crusades uu time bhaes rahaa jab Muslims log Israel ke aapan niche rakhe rahin.

Terminology

[badlo | source ke badlo]
Ek 14th-century ke miniature jon dekhae hae Pope Innocent III Cathars ke excommunictae kare hae aur iske baad ke massacre of heretics Albigensian Crusade southern France me, ke time.

Crusades uu military campaigns rahaa jiske Western Christians undertake kare rahin Holy Land, nai to Palestine ke, Muslim control se lautare, 11th aur 13th centuries ke biich me.[1][2] Iske Pope suru karis rahaa aur hissa le waale ke spiritual reward ke waada karaa gais rahaa, lekin isme kabhi-kabhi tuulog rahin jon driven rahin by popular zeal—jiske popular crusades bola jaawat rahaa. Scholars me , ii sabd ke jaada kar ke aur aur mota taur pe apply karaa jaawe hae, jisme pope ke authorised karaa gais conflicts in duusra ilaaka me bhi, jiske wider framework of the crusading movement ke bhittar karaa gais rahaa, jisme Iberian, Northern aur Albigensian Crusades bhi rahaa.[3][4][5]

Terminology dhire-dhire evolve bhais rahaa, ii khaas kar ke Crusades aur Christian pilgrimage ke reflect karat rahaa. Suruu ke usage terms denoting mobility—iter ('journey') ke favour karat rahaa, expeditio ('expedition'), passagium ('passage')— jon jaada kar ke references to the intended destination se accompanied rahat rahaa, jaise Church of the Holy Sepulchre Jerusalem me.[6] Duusra pahile ke expressions cross (crux) ke signify karat rahin, aur 1250 talak, canon lawyers campaigns Holy Land—crux transmarina ('the cross overseas')—aur jon Europe ke bhittar rahaa—crux cismarina ('the cross this side of the sea') ke biich me antar karat rahin. Hissa le waala lig, jon traditionally ek cross ke aapan kaprra pe siyat rahin, jiske aakhri me crucesignati ('those signed with the cross') ke naam se jaana jaae lagaa rahaa.[note 1][8]

Vernacular terminology ritual of "taking the cross" ke reflect karat rahaa.[8] Sab se pahile ke ruup, crozada, Spain me, 1212 me aais rahaa.[6] Middle English me croiserie, jon Old French se aais hae, 13th–14th centuries me niklaa, baad me iske jagha forms jaise croisade aur crusado, duuno Spanish se influenced rahaa, French me se, ke kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa. Abhi ke term crusade ke 1706 me suruu karaa gais rahaa.[9] Medievalist Thomas Asbridge note kare hae ki ii term ke aam usage me, historians se impose kare hae "a somewhat misleading aura of coherence and conformity" pahila crusading efforts se.[10]

Background

[badlo | source ke badlo]
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre Jerusalem me, jiske Seljuk Turks 1071 me capture kar le rahin, jisse ek geopolitical crises suruu bhais aur is ke ant me Crusades rahaa.

Sites jon Jesus ke ministry se linked rahaa jon popular pilgrimage destinations Roman Palestine me ban gay rahin. Christian emperors ii jagha pe churches ke banae rahin, jisme Church of the Holy Sepulchre, jon Jesus ke crucifixion aur resurrection ke Jerusalem me ke mark kare hae, sab se mashuur rahaa.[11] 395 me, Roman Empire eastern aur western hissa me bat gay rahin. Western Roman Empire smaller kingdoms me 476 talak bat gais rahaa,[12] jabe Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire wahii rakam rahaa, lekin ii dher ilaaka ke barrte Islamic Caliphate ke 7th century me haar gais rahaa.[13][14] Jerusalem Caliph Umar ke niche 638 me aais.[15] Islamic ke barrhai, jiske jihad (holy war) motivate karat rahaa, Western Europe pahunchis jab Muslim conquest of much of the Iberian Peninsula 711 ke baad.[16] Christians jon Muslim raaj ke niche rahin dhimmi—legally protected but socially subordinate.[17][18] Islam ke ideological unity tuut gais jab disputes rahaa neta ke baare me. Shi'a biswas karat rahin ki neta Muhammad ke cousin aur son-in-law, Ali ke rahe ke chaahi, jab Sunni majority ii Alids' hereditary claim ke reject karat rahin.[19] Mid-10th century talak, tiin virodhi caliphates suruu bhais rahaa: Umayyads al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) me, Shi'ite Fatimids Egypt me, aur Abbasids Middle East me.[20][21]

Muslim log, jaise Ibn Khordadbeh ke anusaar, duur aur kamtii developed Western Europe khaali gulaam aur raw materials ke source rahaa.[22] Lekin, c. 950 aur c. 1070 ke biich me, jhuura aur thandaa ke spells North Africa, Middle East, aur Central Asia ke kaaran dher bhukmari aur migration rahaa. Dharmik tensions aur jaada hoe gais rahaa, jiske ant me Holy Sepulchre ke 1009 me naas kar dewa gais rahaa.[23] 1040s se, nomadic Turkomans Middle East ke disrupt karis rahaa. 1055 me, uulog ke neta, Tughril I Seljuk clan authority le liis rahaa Abbasid Caliphate me, Caliph Al-Qa'im ke anumati se.[24][25] Tughril ke nephew Alp Arslan, Battle of Manzikert , 1071 me Byzantines ke kuchal diis, jisse Anatolia Turkoman migration khaatir khul gais rahaa.[26][27] Seljuk Empire suruu bhais rahaa ek dhilla federation of provinces jispe Seljuk princes, Turkoman warlords aur Arab emirs raaj karat rahin. Jaise Byzantine control gira, Armenian aur Greek strongmen frontier cities aur fortresses ke le liin.[28]

A mural depicting naked men, one of them captured by a winged figure at a firing place
Detail of an 11th-century mural depicting a scene of the Last Judgement in the Sant'Angelo ke Abbey Formis, Italy me

Mid-9th century se, central authority Western Europe me kamjor hoe gais rahaa, aur local lords power me hoe gay rahin, jon heavily armoured knights ke command karat rahin aur castles pe kabjaa rakkhe rahin.[29][30] Iilog ke territorial matbhed ke kaaran yudh ek regular feature hoe gais rahaa regions bhar me.[31] Church property aur unarmed groups ke bachae ke khaatir, church ke neta Peace of God movement ke suruu kare rahin, josme uulog offenders ke excommunication ke dhamki dewat rahin.[32][33] Kaaheki sins permeated daily life, Christians ke damnation ke dar rahoo. Sinners ke confess kare ke expect karaa jaawat rahaa aur priestly prescribed penance bhi kare ke parrat rahaa.[34] Hajaaro tirath uatra khaatir Jerusalem gay rahin, lekin pilgrims ke uppar akrman aur jaada hoe gais rahaa. [35]

c. 1000 se, Medieval Warm Period Western Europe ke favour karis rahaa, jisse economy aur abaadi duuno barrha rahaa.[36][37] Sau saal me, Italian merchants Muslim aur Jewish ke jagha le lin as the leading force Mediterranean trade me.[38] 1031 me, al-Andalus fut ke taifas—aur chhotaa kingdoms me hoe gay rahin—jon {{lang|es|Reconquista} ke resist kare nai sakat rahaa}—northern Christian states ke expansion—jiske kaaran radical Almoravids Maghreb se interfere, northern France se principalities ke suruuu kare rahin aur Muslim Sicily ke 1091 talak conquer kar le rahin.[39]

Mid-11th century me, clerics jon "liberty of the Church" ke promote karat rahin, Rome me power me hoe gain, aur simony aur clerical saadi ke uppar rukaawat lagae de rahin. Popes, jiske Rome me Saint Peter ke successor maana jaawat rahaa, Christian church ke uppar supremacy claim karat rahin, lekinEastern Christian leaders iske nai maanin.[40][41] Dher din ke liturgical aur theological differences ke kaaran mutual excommunications 1054 me bhais aur aakhri me a the division Catholic West aur Orthodox East ke biich me.[42][43] Reformist clerics' lay control ke reject karin, jiske kaaran Investiture Controversy bhais rahaa secular powers se.[44] Pop log allies banae rahin spiritual rewards offer kar ke,[45] aur ii Controversy just war me interest ke fir se revive karis rahaa, jiske pahile Augustine 5th century me mention karis rahaa. Theologians, Pope Gregory VII ke niche, conclude karin keFir bhi, larrai ke idea ke anti-papal figures jaise Sigebert of Gembloux ninda kare rahin.{{sfn|Jotischky|2017|p=27}

Duusra websites

[badlo | source ke badlo]

References

[badlo | source ke badlo]
  1. ↑ "CRUSADE". Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. 2025. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
  2. ↑ Madden 2013, p. viii.
  3. ↑ Constable 2001, pp. 12–14.
  4. ↑ Jotischky 2017, pp. 7–10.
  5. ↑ Madden 2013, pp. 2–3.
  6. 1 2 Constable 2001, pp. 11–12.
  7. ↑ Markowski 1984, p. 158.
  8. 1 2 Tyerman 2019, p. 5.
  9. ↑ Onions, Friedrichsen & Bruchfield 1966, p. 232.
  10. ↑ Asbridge 2012, p. 40.
  11. ↑ Asbridge 2012, p. 28.
  12. ↑ Rouche 1989, pp. 17–19.
  13. ↑ Asbridge 2012, p. 19.
  14. ↑ Lock 2006, pp. 4–5.
  15. ↑ Tyerman 2007, p. 51.
  16. ↑ Lock 2006, p. 6.
  17. ↑ Tyerman 2007, p. 52.
  18. ↑ Jaspert 2006, p. 10.
  19. ↑ Cobb 2016, pp. 23–24.
  20. ↑ Asbridge 2012, pp. 20–21.
  21. ↑ Lock 2006, pp. 8–9.
  22. ↑ Cobb 2016, pp. 15–16.
  23. ↑ Ellenblum 2012, pp. 3–11, 47.
  24. ↑ Asbridge 2012, p. 21.
  25. ↑ Lock 2006, pp. 13–14.
  26. ↑ MacEvitt 2008, p. 40.
  27. ↑ Asbridge 2012, pp. 5–6.
  28. ↑ MacEvitt 2008, p. 42.
  29. ↑ Poly 1997, p. 33–38.
  30. ↑ Asbridge 2012, pp. 6–7.
  31. ↑ Jotischky 2017, p. 31.
  32. ↑ Poly 1997, p. 39–46.
  33. ↑ Mayer 2009, pp. 15–16.
  34. ↑ Asbridge 2012, pp. 11–12.
  35. ↑ Mayer 2009, pp. 13–14.
  36. ↑ Epstein 2009, pp. 41–42.
  37. ↑ Tyerman 2019, p. 47.
  38. ↑ Tyerman 2019, p. 12.
  39. ↑ Cobb 2016, pp. 49–70, 146–149.
  40. ↑ Tyerman 2007, p. 6.
  41. ↑ Jotischky 2017, pp. 25, 28–29.
  42. ↑ Jotischky 2017, p. 29.
  43. ↑ Madden 2013, p. 6.
  44. ↑ Jaspert 2006, pp. 25–26.
  45. ↑ Lock 2006, p. 307.
  1. ↑ Although a comparable phrase—hominum multitude cruce signata est ('a multitude of men was signed with the cross')—appears in a late-11th-century papal letter, the earliest attested use of the term crucesignatus occurs in a chapter heading of the Chronicle of Monte Cassino from the mid-12th century.[7]
Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "note", but no corresponding <references group="note"/> tag was found.
"https://hif.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crusade&oldid=337878" se lawa gais hae